History of Psychology Essay Example for Free

History of Psychology Essay Modern psychology is a science that it continually being researched and added to. Psychology predates the 19th century and includes roots into early philosophy. Looking closely one can identify philosophers that related to the beginnings of psychology, identify major philosophers that historically relate to the beginnings psychology as a formal discipline and how the development of the science of psychology changed during the 19th century. A philosopher that could easily be called the father of modern psychology would be: Rene Descartes. Descartes was a philosopher in the 17th century that stepped outside the limits and wanted to know more. Descartes came up with 4 basic rules to arrive at the truth of whatever he was researching. These rules were basically to think clearly, logically and without bias (Goodwin, 2008). Descartes had several derived ideas and was considered a nativist and a rationalist. These ideas that he created foreshadowed one of psychology’s major topics of nature versed nurture. Descartes also fought that there was a difference between a person’s mind and body; and this difference separated us from animals. Before Descartes died he published his last of many books called: The Passions of the Soul. This book established him as a psychologist and a physiologist (Goodwin, 2008). This book emphasized on human emotions and continued on with a discussion about mind and body distinctions. He Clarified the body is a machine and responds to curtain motions, such as fear, that trigger reflexes. Descartes also determined that the pineal glad in the brain was the gland that sent messages from the mind/spirit to the body. Descartes died at just before his 54th birthday in 1650. There were several philosophers that historically relate to the beginnings psychology as a formal discipline. John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume and John Stuart Mill are just a few to mention. Each philosopher contributed an aspect to psychology that led to its formal discipline. John Locke refused to believe in an innate mind and believed that mind is created by experiences and was not pre programmed. He stated believed that the ideas that come from our minds are due to ones sensations and reflections from experiences (Goodwin, 2008). George Berkeley added an analysis of visual perception. He disagreed with Locke’s theory of primary and secondary distinctions, but stated that our belief in God gave us a type of reality. David Hume is known for his study of impressions. This study helped research sensations and ideas the thought were due to impressions. Hume also identified the rules of association as resemblance, contiguity and cause/effect (Goodwin, 2008). There are a couple of reasons that psychology changed dramatically in the 19th century. John Stuart Mill was a big part of that change. Even though John Stuart Mill was a very young philosopher, he studied the logic of science and analyzed several methods on how to get a scientific truth. For example, Mill would look in to different genes that could produce depression. Every depressed person that he would look at would have this gene; however that did not mean that if you had the gene that you automatically had depression. In modern times we call his methods the experimental method and the correlation method. These types of methods are use today in the field of psychology. Philosophers are a big part of the modern world of psychology. They helped introduce methods that are still used today and added science to the study. Without philosophers we may still believe that the mind and body are one and that genes create thoughts and ideas and not experiences. We would not understand how visual and sensations react and create thoughts and different experiences. Philosopher Hermann Ebbinghaus once said that â€Å"Psychology has a long past, yet its real history is short† (Goodwin, 2008). This statement represents the fact that psychology is only 100 years old, but can be predated back from the time humans started asking questions. References Goodwin, C. J. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology (3rd ed. ).

The Concept Of Haccp And Risk Analysis Biology Essay

The Concept Of Haccp And Risk Analysis Biology Essay Food safety is an important issue. The trust of consumers, food safety and quality, and this will be they expected to. Consumers also expect to be able to provide the information; you can help them make informed decisions about the composition of the food, this information, whether it is on the product label or by advertising, not false or misleading. Food safety is a discipline to be describing the handling, preparation and storage food to prevent food borne illnesses. The statistics on food borne illness speak for themselves. Regulatory officials and their management of retail and food service industry must cooperate the other side, if we want to prevent or reduce food borne illness. This Manual was prepared by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), in partnership with federal, state and local regulatory agencies, industry, academia and consumers, to help you operators of the retail and food service establishments, your efforts to produce safe food. This includes man y routines of that should be followed to prevent potentially severe of the health hazards. In this line of thought is the safety of the track between the industry and the market, between the market and consumers. Considerations in food safety, including consideration of industry market practices, the origin of the food, including on food label, food hygiene and food of the additives, as well as biotechnology and food policies and government import and export management guidelines for food inspection and certification system. Consider the market of consumer behavior, it is usually thought that the food should be on the market should be safe, concern consumer food safe delivery and preparation. 2.0 Answer of Question 1 As a food safety expert, what considerations that needs to advocate to ensure a food safe facility is the steps of receive until serving are the most important part. When you have followed the steps nicely then it can avoid from being affect by bacteria. And if you already follow the steps then it will sure your food will be cleanness and healthier. The steps for the food safe facility are very important. Below retail on common steps, in order to assist in your decision-making, and steps you through the procedures in this document. All of the steps are receiving, storage, preparation, cooking, cooling, reheating, holding and serving. 2.1 Receiving The receiving food safety is an important step. In the receiver, the main concern is the contamination of pathogens, and the formation of harmful toxins. The importance of the proposed control measures in steps are rapidly into cold storage at the proper temperature and food spoilage of food and access to food, food additives and packaging materials from legitimate sources. Ready to eat, potentially hazardous food received special attention. This will not be cooked before the food service, the growth of pathogenic bacteria, refrigerated in this step, the food can be eaten at any time can be considered to be an important risk. Prerequisite programs, in order to control the temperature of the product is generally of the hazard, these products are mostly in the receiving sufficient control. At a suitable temperature, and when it arrives, if there is a potential danger if it is at a temperature of 5Â °C or below freezing, if it is at a temperature of 60Â °C or above heat and it is the frozen hard, rather than partially thawed. When this problem happens, then reject potentially dangerous food to pass internal temperature between 5Â °C and 60Â °C. Unless the supplier can prove a time segment, in which the food has been at 5Â °C and 60Â °C not impair food security. In addition to checking the temperature of the product, you should check the appearance, smell, color and condition of the packaging. 2.2 Storage When the food in refrigerated storage, food safety management system should focus on maintain temperature control to limit the growth of pathogenic bacteria that may be present, in the preparation of food products and store food, such as ready to eat foods, cross-contamination of raw animal foods to prevent. When determining the storage temperature and the frequency of monitoring in refrigeration products, you may decide to set the temperature lower than what is required by local regulations. Set temperature is lower than what your regulatory requirements, the bacteria begin to grow small upward bias temperature detected by frequent monitoring, can be quickly corrected. For example, if you are storing potentially dangerous, ready to eat food under refrigeration, you may decide to set critical limits of the refrigeration unit to run in 38Â °F. This provides a safety cushion, you have the opportunity to see the trend of more than 41Â °F and the appropriate corrective measures to inte rvene before the bacteria begin to grow to dangerous levels. Ready to eat food, it is best to check the temperature inside the control procedures. You should assess whether it is realistic and feasible for you to do this depends on your food storage volumes. You can choose your monitoring system based on air temperature refrigeration equipment as a prerequisite for the program. How often you should monitor the air temperature depends on your capacity and the use of refrigeration equipment and the number and type of food stored in the cold storage units. 2.3 Preparation Of all the operational steps, preparation has the greatest variety of activities that should be controlled, monitored, and in some cases, documented. This is impossible, including a summary of the manual covers a variety of menus, the skills of the staff and facilities design, influence the preparation of food. The preparation step may involve a plurality of procedures, including thawing, mixing together ingredients cutting, chopping, slicing, or breading. Preparatory steps, the premise of the program can be developed, to control some of the hazards, and assist in the implementation of food safety management system, to minimize the growth of bacteria and from the staff and equipment contamination. Prepared in small quantities for controlling bacteria growth it because the restriction of the amount of food prepared is an important tool that allows the growth temperature, maintained at the time of food minimized. The pre-planning of the volume of the food and minimize the time for prep aring the desired time the food is in the dangerous temperature region, the steps in this operation. The thawing of the frozen food products to maintain the proper temperature and time management is the primary control, to minimize bacterial growth. Procedures should be in place to reduce the potential for microbial, chemical and physical contamination during thawing. 2.4 Cooking Animal derived food cooking is the most effective steps to reduce or eliminate biological contamination. Cooking time specified to the proper temperature will kill most harmful bacteria and parasites. Therefore, frequent cooking temperature monitoring, it is strongly recommended. You should be determined to ensure that the proper cooking temperature and time to achieve the best system to use. Cooking raw animal foods, special consideration should be given to the time and temperature. In the development of the HACCP plan or prerequisite, it is important to understand the critical limit is a particular product in the cooking steps. For example, security cooking temperature or time for the poultry is 165Â °F is 15 seconds; 15 seconds with 155Â °F minced beef is safe cooking temperature. 2.5 Cooling If you want to cook, you intend after cooling and the use of potentially hazardous food, and then you need food cooled to 5Â °C or lower temperature as quickly as possible. Possible, even if it has been cooked foods cause food poisoning bacteria. These bacteria are able to grow faster cooling time limit or the formation of toxins. Cooling cooked potentially hazardous food, within a period of cooling food are from 60Â °C 21Â °C within in two hours and from 21Â °C to 5Â °C within a further four hours. This means that you have a cold food for up to six hours, from 60Â °C to 5Â °C or below. If you do not know how your food fast cooling, using a probe thermometer to measure the most warm food usually in the center section. Rapid cold food, break it down into smaller parts in shallow containers. Be careful not to contaminate the food when you do so. 2.6 Reheating If the food does not correct the temperature is maintained at a sufficiently long time, the pathogens have the opportunity to breeding dangerous figures. Appropriate reheating provides an important control to eliminate these organisms. Remember although proper reheating will kill most organisms of concern, it does not eliminate the toxins in the body, such as Bacillus cereus food borne viruses produce. Immediate use of any potentially hazardous food has been held between 5Â °C and 60Â °C, and more than two hours, but discarded food, has been held more than 5Â °C and 60Â °C for 4 hours. 2.7 Holding When cooking process to eliminate the bacteria, the spore-forming bacteria should be destroyed. If not at the proper temperature, without temperature control, held at the appropriate time in the cooked food, the rapid growth of this spore-forming bacterium is a big problem. Keeping food products at 135Â °F or above during hot holding and keeping food products at or below 41Â °F is effective in preventing microbial growth. As an alternative, the temperature control details of Food Code action, when used alone as a control, including a comprehensive monitoring and food labeling system to ensure food safety. 2.8 Serving Food before it reaches the customer, which is the last step of the operation. When employees work with food and food contact surfaces, they can easily spread bacteria parasites and viruses. Manage personal hygiene is important to control these hazards. Recommend employees personal health management program, implemented to solve the following proper hand washing procedures, appropriate use of gloves and dispensing utensils and the control bare hand contact with ready to eat food. Specific program recommends that customers self-service displays, such as to protect food from contamination of salad bars and buffets. Special consideration should be given to prevent cross-contamination, contaminated equipment and equipment to minimize pollution customers. 3.0 Conclusion of Question 1 In conclusion, when you cook or have a food then you should follow the steps that mention above. You take positive measures to improve the security you establish food sales. As we know, food is very important for us and it may cause us healthier or death. So that we should follow the steps nicely and make sure that the food is clean and make sure it safe to eat. Bacteria is the most difficult thing to prevent when you want to cook, bacteria will around any place and we cannot feel it or touch it but it can easily make the food become unhealthy. If you follow the steps that mention at above then it sure will help prevent those bacteria and also can easier cook out a healthy food. 1.0 Introduction of Question 2 In order to strengthen food security, food production per stage is from are receiving, storage, preparation, cooking, cooling, reheating, holding and serving strict monitoring should be carried out. Food security has already become important and most of the proprietor or customer will be attach importance to this food security. The HACCP system is a scientific, systematic approach to identify assess and control hazards in the food production process. HACCP system, food safety control integrated design process, rather than relying on the testing of the last product. Therefore, the HACCP system in food safety, it can prevention and cost-effective way. 2.0 Answer of Question 2 The Codex Alimentarius Commission sets out seven principles for the basis of HACCP systems. Applies only to the seven principles of HACCP has completed a preliminary step in the development of the HACCP plan. 2.1 The seven principles of HACCP 2.1.1 Principles 1-Conduct a Hazard Analysis The application of this principle relates to the steps in the listing process and identify significant harm is likely to occur. HACCP team will focus on hazards is to prevent, eliminate or control the HACCP plan. Reported reasons include or exclude the danger, and to determine the possible control measures. 2.1.2 Principles 2-Identify Critical Control Points (CCP) Critical Control Point (CCP) is a point, and it is step or procedure can be applied to control the food safety hazard can be prevented, can be eliminated or can be reduced to an acceptable of a level. HACCP team will use the CCP decision tree to help determine the critical control points in the process. The critical control points can control more than one food safety hazards, or in some cases, it is necessary to control a single dangerous more than one of CCP. CPC needed depends on the number to ensure that the required processing steps and control of food safety. 2.1.3 Principles 3-Establish Critical Limits Critical limits (CL) is a CCP, in order to avoid, eliminate or reduce become an acceptable of a level, biological, chemical or physical parameters of food safety hazards must be controlled at the maximum and or minimum value. Usually a key restriction measures, such as time, temperature, water activity (Aw), pH value, weight, or some other measure is based on the scientific literature and or regulatory standards. 2.1.4 Principles 4-Establish Monitoring Procedures Once you have determined the critical control points and critical limits, need someone to track the critical control point, food flows through operation. Monitoring, including direct observation or measurement of critical control point is under control, insist on the establishment of critical limits. 2.1.5 Principles 5-Establish Corrective Actions Occasional processes or procedures in monitoring critical control points will not be able to comply with the established critical limit. It happens when this step is to establish a plan has not been met in the critical limit to the critical control points. The operator can determine the action of these actions is to convey to the employees, and train them to make the right of the decisions. This preventive are approach to this heart of the HACCP. Problems, but you need to find them, correct them before they lead to illness or injury. 2.1.6 Principles 6-Establish Verification Procedures This principle is to ensure that the system is the science of sound, effective control of hazards. In addition, this step ensures that specified when the system is running according to plan. Specified personal favorite manager regularly observe the activities of staff supervision, calibration equipment and temperature measuring devices, review of records or actions with employees to discuss the program. The purpose of all these activities is to deal with the issue of food security to ensure that the HACCP plan, if not, check to see is it needs to be make it better or modified. 2.1.7 Principles 7-Establish Record Keeping Procedures There are written records or documents needed to verify that systems are still working. This record is usually involved in the HACCP planning and monitoring, corrective action is taken, or calibration records of the operation of the HACCP system in the production. You can also include verification records. Maintenance records, records in the HACCP system is a sustained and effective system is in the place. Record of keeping it should be as simple as possible, so that more staff will have enough time to keep the records. 2.2 Risk Analysis Food safety risk analysis is essential, not only to the production or manufacture of goods and products of the highest quality, to ensure the safety and protection of public health, also in line with international standards and national standards, market regulations. 2.2.1 Risk Assessment The Centre for Food Safety (CFS) of the Food and Environmental Hygiene Department adopts the risk analysis framework promulgated by international food safety authorities in controlling food safety. The risk analysis consists of three functions, namely, risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication. The risk assessment can control the scientific basis for action. Risk assessment should incorporate the four steps of risk assessment example is hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure assessment and risk characterization. Experienced in the risk assessment process, with the food or food ingredient hazard assessment and the potential risks of the population to be evaluated in order to develop appropriate risk management measures and risk communication information to protect public health. 2.2.2 Risk Management The risk assessment and risk communication, risk management is an important part of the risk analysis. This introduces a factor of the process of the successful implementation of the risk management needs. It describes the steps to identify and assess food safety risks, evaluate all available options to manage these risks, implementation of risk management decisions, and to ensure that the decision was the most appropriate. Risk management should take a comprehensive view of possible human health risk management. The process of risk management and decision-making should be transparent and appropriate records for different audiences. The risk management needs of a wide range of communication, coordination and collaboration, risk management and risk assessment, and with external stakeholders. 2.2.3 Risk Communication Therefore, if this is very important, in the end what is a food safety risk communication? While risk communication is a very complex subject, it is very simple in nature. Food safety risk communication is a three-step process, began to conduct a risk assessment, food safety scientists and statisticians part of the assessment of the likelihood of public health risk. The second step is risk management, health officials, scientific experts, food manufacturers and retailers work together to determine exactly what steps you need to ensure public safety. The third step is to risk communication, sharing of information and advice, with the consumption of the general public, and with the other parties in the production and preparation of food, food distribution and sales. From their experience in risk communication, International Food Information Council has developed a set of guidelines to help ensure that the right information reaches stakeholders and consumers, enabling them to make infor med decisions about the food they eat, their security. It is Understand and addresses the public concern and communicates with clarity and sympathy. 3.0 Conclusion of Question 2 Nowadays, food safety has become very important. Most of the proprietor and customer are attach importance to the food safety. Because when restaurant make out the food with not safety and the customer having the stale food then it may cause food poison or more serious it also can cause death. So to avoid this thing happen then HACCP is the better way to help you prevent the bacteria. Those seven principles are very important; all of restaurant, supplier should follow the principles to prevent bacteria and provide a healthy food. And then about risk analysis also one of the important thing for us. So, if you want make food safety then you should follow the steps of HACCP with nicely.

Romanticism Essays -- Romantic Period Essays

Romanticism "In spite of its representation of potentially diabolical and satanic powers, its historical and geographic location and its satire on extreme Calvinism, James Hogg's Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner proves to be a novel that a dramatises a crisis of identity, a theme which is very much a Romantic concern." Discuss. Examination of Romantic texts provides us with only a limited and much debated degree of commonality. However despite the disparity of Romanticism (or Romanticisms) as a movement it would be true to say that a prevalent aspect of Romantic literature that unites many different forms of the movement, is a concern with the divided self. As the empirical Rationalism of the eighteenth century was partially subverted by the subjective metaphysical reflection in the nineteenth artists tended to examine wider issues from an introspective starting point. The idea of the divided self became a motif from Blake's "Albion" to Byron's Manfred to Keat's musings on the disassociated nature of the Poetic Self. Some writers personified this division in distinct physical manifestations, usually a hero and his inverse doppelganger. Most famously in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, the various "selves" in De Quincey's Confessions of an English Opium Eater and in the complex mirroring of major characters in James Hogg's ambiguous masterpiece Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner. Although critics (as Andrea Henderson in Romantic Identities) have debated the extent that Romanticism dramatises divisive crises with the psychological self , the vast majority of writing on the subject agrees that "crisis of identity" is certainly a "Romantic concern". Hugo Donelley draws attention to the "Modernis... ... Doubleness of Hogg's Confessions and the Tradition", Studies in Scottish Literature, Vol. 18, pp. 59-74. Punter, D. "The dialectic of persecution" in The Literature of Terror Volume I, 1996, Longman Group (David Punter), London and New York. Simpson, L. James Hogg, a Critical Study, 1962, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. Wittig, Kurt. The Scottish Tradition in Literature, 1958, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. Wu, Duncan. "Introduction" in Romanticism: An Anthology WEBSITES. http://prometheus.cc.emory.edu/panels/4C/R.Incorvati.html Incorvati, R. "Dialogue and Marginality in James Hogg's Confessions of a Justified Sinner." Prometheus Unplugged Website. --------------------------------------------------------------------- [1] Although Hogg was writing in a pre-Freudian era the essentials of his psychodynamic theory were as pertinent in 1834 as they were in 1934.

The Athenian and American Systems of Government :: essays research papers fc

Athens of ancient Greece had perhaps the most advanced system of government of the ancient world. The system of Athens was called a Democracy. That is, every citizen voted on everything. People have claimed that the United States is also a Democracy. This is not true. The government of the United States is a Constitutional Republic (Every). United States citizens vote for representatives, who then vote on the laws. They themselves are limited by a constitution. Democracy is a flawed government system. The Constitutional Republic is also flawed, however, it is better at safeguarding individual rights, when applied correctly. Therefore, a Constitutional Republic is a better system than a Democracy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Athens was one of the largest Greek city states. (Stockton, 4). It was about one thousand square miles (Stockton, 4). Athens was founded in the 8th century BC (Muller). It was at first ruled by the college of archons. (Muller). After a term of one year, the archons became members of the Council of Elders (Muller). The people had a voice in the popular assembly, the Ekklesia (Muller). However, it did not have real power until 600 BC. By then, it was an established institution of Athens (Muller). It became the central policy making body in the 5th century. There were two main governmental bodies, the Assembly and the Council. (Acropolis). The Assembly was responsible for policy making. (Acropolis) The Council was responsible for administration and implementing the Assembly’s policies. Not everyone could participate in Athenian politics. Slaves, resident aliens, and women were excluded.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main architect of Athenian law was Solon. It is unknown when Solon was born. He died in 559 BC. (Plutarch). Solon allowed everyone to participate in court (Stockton 19). He created a code of laws based on justice, balance, and good order (Muller). Solon abolished the practice of debt bondage (Muller). Solon created the Council of 400 (Boule), and a court called the Heliaia. (Muller) Solon divided Athenians into classes in accordance with their income (Plutarch). The lowest class, the thetes, was ineligible for election to office (Plutarch). However, they could still come into the assembly and act as jurors (Plutarch). The other classes, from lowest to highest, were zeugits, hippies, and pentakosiomedimnoi (Muller).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Solon’s laws were obscure and ambiguous (Plutarch). The court, therefore, and wide powers of interpretation. This gave a significant amount of power even to the thetes. Before a matter could be submitted to the public for vote, it had to be approved by the Council of 400 (Plutarch).

Things Fall Apart Essay examples -- essays research papers

Things Fall Apart   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chinua Achebe?s Things Fall Apart is a narrative story that follows the life of an African man called Okonkwo. The setting of the book is in eastern Nigeria, on the eve of British colonialism in Africa. The novel illustrates Okonkwo?s struggles, triumphs, and his eventual downfall, all of which basically coincide with the Igbo?s society?s struggle with the Christian religion and British government. In this essay I will give a biographical account of Okonwo, which will serve to help understand that social, political, and economic institutions of the Igbos.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the beginning of the novel Okonkwo was a fairly wealthy and well-respected member of the Igbo society, but it had not always been that way for him. Okonkwo?s father, Unoka, had been a lazy man who would rather play his flute than take care of his crops. Unoka was said to be a charming man, and was able to borrow large amounts of money from his friends, but was never able to pay it back. As a result, Okonkwo has grown up very poor and ashamed of his lazy father. At one point in the book, Okonkwo remembers hearing one of his playmates calling his father an ?agbala,? which was the word for woman, but all described a man who had taken not titles (13). Okonkwo never forgets this, and actually develops a deep-seated fear that people will think that he is weak like his father. As I mentioned, Okonkwo became very well known, and his wealth and prestige rested solely on his own personal achievements. Okonkwo had received no inheritance from his poor father, no land and no money. As a young man, Okonkwo had been very successful wrestler, and as he grew older he became a well-known warrior. He was said to have brought home five human heads, which was a great achievement even for men who were much older that he was. At the beginning of the story, Okonkwo had obtained two titles, and had the respect of every man from all nine villages of Umuofia. Symbols of his wealth and prestige were his family and his compound. As I mentioned earlier, Okonwo had received no inheritance, and at the time of this story Okonkwo is still fairly young, and the fact that he had three wives, several children, and a very productive piece of land showed that Okonkwo was a very diligent worker. ?Okonkwo ruled his household with a heavy hand. His wives, especially... ... a meeting, Okonkwo, knowing that his clansmen would do nothing to drive the white men away form their villages, killed a messenger. He then went home and committed suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Okonkwo is often described as being similar to characters in Greek tragedies. Okonkwo knew that the end of his clan was coming, and that they would do nothing to prevent it from happening. He took his life out of desperation. He had struggled his whole life to become a respected member of his community, and suddenly his world is turned upside down and changed forever because of an accident. Okonkwo sees that he is fighting a losing battle, so he quits. Suicide was one of the biggest offenses that could be committed against the earth, and Okonkwo?s own clansmen could not bury him. Okonkwo?s death symbolizes the end of patriarchy in Umuofia. The last page of the book is from the point of view of the white Commissioner, who notes that he wants to include a paragraph on Okonkwo?s life in his book entitled The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of Lower Niger. Okonkwo?s struggles, triumphs and defeats are all reduced to a paragraph, much like his culture and society will be reduced.

Eight Stages of Development

This paper will present an overview of the developmental tasks involved in the social and emotional development of children and teenagers which continues into adulthood. The presentation is based on the Eight Stages of Development developed by psychiatrist, Erik Erikson in 1956. According to Erickson, humans move through eight stages of psychosocial development during our lives. Each stage centers around a specific crisis or conflict between competing tendencies.Erikson's theory consists of eight stages of development. Each stage is characterized by a different conflict that must be resolved by the individual. When the environment makes new demands on people, the conflicts arise. â€Å"The person is faced with a choice between two ways of coping with each crisis, an adaptive or maladaptive way. Only when each crisis is resolved, which involves change in the personality; does the person have sufficient strength to deal with the next stages of development†(Schultz and Schultz, 1 987).If a person is unable to resolve a conflict at a particular stage, they will confront and struggle with it later in life. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope) Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The child, well – handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism (Stevens, 1983). Badly handled, a child becomes insecure and mistrustful. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will) The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early childhood, probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3? o 4 years of age. According to Erikson, self control and self confidence begin to develop at this stage (Stevens, 1983). Children can do more on their own. Toilet training is the most important event at this stage. They also begin to feed and dress themselves. This is how the toddler strives for autonomy. It is essential for parents not to be overprotective at this stage (Steven s, 1983). A parent's level of protectiveness will influence the child's ability to achieve autonomy. If a parent is not reinforcing, the child will feel shameful and will learn to doubt his or her abilities. Erikson believes that children who experience too much doubt at this stage will lack confidence in their powers later in life†(Woolfolk, 1987). Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose) Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the â€Å"play age,† or the later preschool years (from about 3? to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school). The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups.Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2004), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits.These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents (Marcia, 1966). Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence) Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls the â€Å"school age,† most likely up to and possibly including some of junior high school (Erickson, 1950). Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals. † They work hard at â€Å"being responsible, being good and doing it right. † They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. † (Gross, 1987). Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group: Children understand the concepts of space and time, gain better understanding of cause and effect and understand calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time.They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance (Allen and Marotz, 2003). At this stage, children might express their independence by being disobedient, using back talk and being rebellious. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question of â€Å"Who am I? But even the most adjusted of adolescent’s experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency, rebellion, self – doubts flood the adolescent (Kail and Cavanaugh, 2004). Erikson is credited with coining the term â€Å"Identity Crisis†(Gross, 1987). Each stage that came before and that follows has its own ‘crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because â€Å"Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications.But the need for identity in youth is not met by these (Wright, 1982). This turning point in human development seems to be the reconciliation between ‘the person one has come to be' and ‘the person society expects one to become'. This emerging sense of self will be established by merging past experiences with expectation of the future. In relation to the ei ght life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads: Adolescents â€Å"are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile world (Gross, 1987). This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state of ‘identity confusion', but society normally makes allowances for youth to â€Å"find themselves,† and this state is called ‘the moratorium': As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one has been raised, one’s personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself (Wright, 1982). Oftentimes, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political orientations.Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their career choice, and oftentimes parents want to have a decisive say in that role. If society is too insistent, the teenager w ill agree to external wishes, forcing him or her to stop experimentation and finding true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will he or she be able to incorporate this aspect of self-definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspectives of â€Å"What have I got? † and â€Å"What am I going to do with it? he or she has established their identity (Gross, 1987) Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love) The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the ages of 20 to 34. At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, and it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us.We are familiar with pain, and to som e of us, rejection is painful; our egos cannot bear the pain. Erikson also argues that â€Å"Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's intimate relations† (Erickson, 1950). Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, mutual relationships and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require.If people cannot form these intimate relationships – perhaps because of their own needs – a sense of isolation may result. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care) In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom) If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity (Marcia, 1966). He trusts, he is independent and dares the new.He works hard, has found a well – defined role in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates; his children, his work, or his hobbies (Marcia, 1966). If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair. Conclusion These eight stages of man, or the psychosocial crises, are likely and insightful descriptions of how personality develops but at present they are descriptions only.We possess at best simple and tentative knowledge of just what sort of environment will result, for example, in traits of trust versus distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion. Socialization, then is a learning – teaching process that, when successful, results in the human organism's moving from its infant state of helpless but total self-absorption to its ideal adult state of sensible conformity coupled with independent creativity.References Bee, Helen and Boyd, Denise. (2004). The Developing Child. (10th ed. ). Boston: Pearson Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton (1950); Triad/Paladin (1977), Erikson, E. , (1956), The Problem of Ego Identity, Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 4 Gross, F. L. (1987). Introducing Erik Erikson: An invitation to his thinking. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Kail, R. V. , ;amp; Cavanaugh, J. C. (2004). Human development: A life-span view. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. Marcia, J. E. , (1966), Development and validation of ego identity status, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3 PSY 345 Lecture Notes – Ego Psychologists, Erik Erikson, http://www. psychology. sunysb. du/ewater s/345/2007_erikson/2006_erikson. pdf, retrieved 2010-11-11   Stevens, Richard. (1983). Erik Erikson, An Introduction. New York: St. Martin's Press. Schultz D. P. & Schultz S. E. (1987). A History of Modern Psychology. Orlando, FL: Harcourt-Brace. The Theoretical Basis for the Life Model-Research And Resources On Human Development, http://www. lifemodel. org/download/ModelBuildingAppendix. pdf, retrieved 2010-11-11   Woolfolk, A. E. (1987). Educational Psychology, (3rded. ). New Jersey: Simon and Schuster. Wright, J. Eugene (1982). Erikson: Identity & Religion. New York; The Seabury Press

Fin 580

1. (TCO D) The most valuable single technique in personal risk management to assist an individual in determining how much life insurance is needed is: (Points : 4) Computing the Human Life Value. Using the probability of death each year, prevailing interest rates and assumed inflation rates to find the discounted present value of a future income stream. x Assessing the family's total economic needs and subtracting financial resources available to meet those needs.Estimating the sum of money which, when paid in installments, will produce the same income as the person would have earned, after deducting assumed amounts for taxes and personal maintenance expenses. Using a multiple of earnings adjusted for occupation. 2. (TCO D) Mike had a $100,000 whole life insurance policy with a $10,000 loan outstanding when he died. The policy had a $20,000 cash value prior to the loan. How much will his beneficiary receive following Mike's death? (Points : 4) $120,000 110,000 $100,000 xx $90,000 $30 ,000 3. (TCO D) If your employment is terminated, COBRA provides for: (Points : 4) Cancellation of all group insurance benefits. Continuation of group insurance benefits until you are reemployed. Permanent continuation of group health insurance. x Temporary continuation of group insurance benefits; you pay premiums. Temporary continuation of group insurance benefits; employer pays premiums. 4. (TCO D) Which of the following best describes a â€Å"pre-existing condition†? Points : 4) An exclusion. Cancer, heart condition or other serious diseases. An injury that results from an accident. Something not covered by the insurance policy. x A medical condition for which one has previously been treated. 5. (TCO D) The right of ______ gives the insurance company the right to recover its costs from the at-fault party after the company has paid a claim to its insured. (Points : 4) x Subrogation Indemnity Insurance interest Coinsurance None of these