Sun Yat Sen and Democracy in China - Indispensable to each other A Dissertation

Sun Yat Sen and Democracy in China - Indispensable to each other A Critical Analysis - Dissertation Example He focused on modernizing the Chinese economy on the lines of the Western model (focusing on the British model) and sought to achieve his objective with the help of the Western civilization (British civilization). As a result, Chinese historians have been interested in examining the life, philosophy, and work of Sun Yat Sen. From Chinese historical accounts, it is clear that Sun’s contribution in the development of modern Chinese democratic republic is highly significant (Bergerie & Lloyd, 1998, p 1). Sun Yat-Sen’s family was farmers and devoted the early stages of his life (upto 6 years of age) in farming activities like herding cows. After this time, he was a member of the secret societies, such as Furen Literary Society, Revive China Society, and in 1888 he directed his efforts in voicing the grievances of the peasant communities. After 1890, he gradually became a part of the new emerging intelligentsia of the Chinese society. Yat-Sen joined the Revolutionary Allianc e (), a ‘nationalist and republican revolutionary party’ (, , , ) of China and ‘finally became its official leader’. The Revolutionary Alliance under the leadership of Yat-Sen proceeded to plan a way of putting an end to the then Chinese governmental regime (the Qing government). After this revolution in 1905 China’s famous revolution of 1911 occurred. In the aftermath of the revolution, Sun Yat-Sen became the President of the Chinese Republic for a brief period of time, from 1911 to 1912. However, the republican form of governance did not continue for long and rapidly deteriorated into a dictatorship regime. However, Yat-Sen did not lose faith in his primary mission.He believed that he could still chart out a new destiny, in 1915, for his nation with the help of his own endeavors. Yat-Sen, in 1918 set about organizing a military base in Canton, who would rally around him and help him to usurp the national power from the then ruling generals in Pekin g, such as Lu Hao-tung. In 1924, his military party was compelled to form a foreign alliance with Soviet Russia owing to the antagonism of the Western powers. This collaboration happened for acquiring arms and weapons from Soviet Russia and also to declare attacks on Britain. This partnership model (collaboration with Soviet Russia) provided Yat-Sen with the inspiration for the reorganization of the military party, the Guomingdang ( ) and the restatement of his philosophy of the â€Å"Three Principles of the People†. Bergerie suggests Sun based them all on the experiences he had with the alliance partnership with the Soviet Union (Bergerie& Lloyd, 1998, p 3-4). Chinese historians and people remember Dr. Sun Yat-Sen as one of the foremost reformers and revolutionaries in the history of the Chinese civilization. His primary objective in life was to put an end to the corrupt rule of the Qing dynasty and introduce a democratic form of government in China (Hays, 2010, p. 55). Thus , he is considered by Chinese historians to be the Father of the modern 20th century China. His political philosophies, both reforms initiated by Sun refers to these philosophies, have earned the respect of both the Chinese communist thinkers as well as the Nationalist Taiwanese reformers. During this period, in 1990s and 1920s, China was being ruled by the Qing dynasty, which had become steeped in corruption.The Chinese citizens were gradually beginning protest against the rule of the Qing dynasty. Most of the Chinese individuals were seething in anger against the corrupt rule which ignited a rebellious streak in them. They went ahead and formed secret societies which were engaged in planning and plotting against the Qing rulers.

How Life Can Be Changeable and Incredibly Frenzied Essay - 4

How Life Can Be Changeable and Incredibly Frenzied - Essay Example It was until his condition became worse that he qualified for palliative care and a number of nurses as well as social workers could attend to him. His conditions included pneumonia and caused his chest to grow wheezy. This disease was identifies as the best friend for my father since it offered an opportunity for slow death. Butler’s entire essay depicts a literal and emotional piece especially since it is about the slow death of her father. Bridget Potter in her essay ‘The lucky Girl’ describes her endeavors as she tries to get rid of an unwanted pregnancy during the eras when it was illegal. She uses her story to explain the dangers that women had to undergo prior to legalization of abortion in America. In her story, she points out most people especially women seeking for abortion lack any other option in mind even if realistically adoption is an option. This is the reason she has to beg the doctors to claim her condition as necrotic so that she would undergo t he process of abortion in a hospital. Performing illegal abortions can cause unnecessary deaths and for this reason, it would only be fair to let women choose affordable, safe and legal methods of abortions. In the essay ‘Topic of Cancer’, Christopher Hitchens provides information about his struggles with esophagus cancer. He confirms that a number of times, he had woken up feeling like death, but it did not feel as it did when it was confirmed that he had the cancer illness. In his description, he explains that he felt like he had manacled to his own corpse. In his essay, it is essential to identify the intellectual rather than the emotional bit since it actually dominates his entire writing. The theme of death and suffering that accompanies it are very evident in this essay as Hitchens describes the pain he felt from his thorax and chest. An individual listening to his description can picture the breathing struggles he had to endure, and as he explains how the above p arts appeared to have emptied out and then replenished with cement that was slowly drying. Breathing is the ideal meaning of life since difficulties in breathing result to much negativity such as excessive beating of the heart and strenuous efforts in doing simple things like breathing and walking. According to Hitchens, emergency individuals are kind hearted, engage professionalism and courtesy, and the ability to save lives. Those used in the essay that assisted Hitchens carefully worked on his heart and lungs guaranteeing that he did not have to put up with death. In the three essays, sickness and death are common themes although is one of the essay, the Lucky Girl, the condition is not really sickness. Hitchens’s and Butler’s essay provide a clear analysis of the differences of the employees in hospitals. The emergency crew in Hitchen’s essay is very humble and passionate and treats him with great care to the extent that his treatment is fruitful: resulting to his survival. On the other hand, the nurses providing medication for Butler’s father were ignorant and did not identify the causative disease for her father’s death. If they would have identified the initial signs of pneumonia, they would have had a reason to hospitalize him and offer him the required treatment. Similarly, Potter shows the kind of attitude that Doctors have towards assisting some of the patients who are in great need.

023 Understand Child and Young Person development Essay Example for Free

023 Understand Child and Young Person development Essay Age range Explain the sequence and rate of development 0-3 months When born, babies show innate reflexes, such as swallowing and sucking, rooting reflex, grasp reflex, startle reflex, walking and standing reflex; in the first month babies become less curled up and the startle reflex is starting to fade; toward the end of the third month babies start lifting and turning their heads. 3-6 months When lying on front babies can lift their arms and legs balancing on their tummies; they can reach and grab a toy and they can pass it from one hand to another; they can also roll from their backs to front; around sixth month babies are becoming able to sit with support (e. g. high chair). 6-9 months Babies can sit without support; they are beginning to crawl or find other ways of being mobile (bottom-shuffling); starting to use fingers to feed. 9-12 months Babies are becoming very mobile, fast crawling, standing up by the furniture, some babies walk along the furniture using their hands to hold on; developing abilities to handle objects and putting them into containers; babies able to feed themselves with fingers. 1-2 years At the beginning of this period babies are beginning to walk and around 18 months they are becoming more and more skilful on their feet, moving faster; toddlers around this age begin to sit and push with their legs to move on the sit-and-ride toys. Towards their second year children walk confidently, they can run and climb; towards the end of the second year some children are becoming ready to start potty training. 2-4 years In the third year children start potty training; they become able to push with feet or peddle a tricycle; children can walk upstairs alternating their feet; towards the end of the this period children are skilful enough to feed and dress themselves; they are able to do threading, pouring and they can use scissors. 4-7 years Physical development less rapid, however skills are becoming more refined and movements more coordinated. Ability to kick and control ball; development of fine motor skills essential for handwriting. 7-12 years Good coordination of small and large movements; growing physical skilfulness means task can be done quicker, more accurately and more confidently; neater drawing and writing; accurate cutting. Between 9 and 12 children gain even better coordination and speed in fine and gross motor skills. Around 11th year the bodies of some girls are starting to change (growing breasts) and some might start their periods. 12-16 years Gradual body changes in both girls and boys (girls physically mature quicker [around 15/ 16] than boys [around 17/18]. Fast body changes may affect spatial awareness which can become occasionally poor as a result. 16-19 years The maturing of the body is finishing with the full development of sexual organs; the body is taking a distinctive female or male shape. 023 Table 2: Intellectual and cognitive development Age range Explain the sequence and rate of development 0-3 months Quite early on babies are able to recognise the smell of their mother and her voice; later they become familiar with voices of important others and they can be calmed when they hear them; they are interested in faces. In their 3rd month babies start to differentiate between day and night (settled routine); babies become interested in mobiles and other objects around them. 3-6 months Babies are becoming interested in what is happening around them, turning their head in the direction of interest; objects are being explored by hands and mouth. 6-9 months Developing fine motor skills allow babies for a better exploration of objects by handling and touching with fingers; around 8 or 9 months babies understand object permanence (objects continue to exists even when out of sight). 9-12 months Babies are more aware of what is happening around them, they are starting to understand routines through signals (bib = food) 1-2 years Children enjoy pop-up and posting toys and in their 2nd year they are starting to have a go at simple jigsaw puzzles and building bricks. 2-4 years Children pretend play with miniature world; they more interested in books, mark making and painting. In their fourth year children are able to concentrate and focus longer on activities which which caught their interest. 4-7 years Children begin to do some simple counting and calculations, recognizing letters is followed by gradual decoding of simple words and later by reading. 7-12 years Reading and writing is becoming easier, children start reading silently to themselves. Play becomes more organized and follows rules. Development of thinking and reasoning is demonstrated through independent problem solving. 12-16 years Further development of reasoning and problem solving; children are gradually starting to understand more abstract concepts. 16-19 years Cognitive abilities are becoming further refined, leading to high level skills in young people. 023 Table 3: Communication development Age range Explain the sequence and rate of development 0-3 months To start with babies express their hunger, tiredness or other discontent through crying; around 5th/6th week babies start to coo when content; in the third month babies start smiling and reciprocate smiles. 3-6 months Babies starting to understand a little of what is being said and they are starting to give some communication signals themselves (e. g. raised arms when they want to be picked up). 6-9 months Babies become quite vocal, babbling with a differentiated tuneful string of sounds. They are also starting to understand various important key words connected with their routines (e. g. ?dinner? ). 9-12 months Babies clearly show they understand more of what is being said around them/ to them. Babbling is still main way of communication. 1-2 years First meaningful sounds/ words are beginning to emerge around 13 months, and at the end of 2nd year children might have a vocabulary of about 200 words. 2-4 years Language is becoming a powerful means of communication. From connecting two words first children are beginning gradually to build up sentences and their talking is becoming understandable even to those who are not in regular contact with the child. Even though there might be the odd mistake in the sentence structure, the language toward the end of this period is becoming fluent and children ask questions and generally enjoy expressing themselves through language. 4-7 years Children are becoming involved with written language – they are starting to learn to read and write. 7-12 years Reading and writing becomes easier now; at the beginning of this period children enjoy telling jokes to others; apart from chatting, children are beginning to be able to form a simple argument and be persuasive, they are becoming increasingly able to negotiate with others. Their writing shows more grammatical awareness as well as own imagination. 12-16 years Reading and writing skills are becoming very good and children are becoming increasingly skilful in negotiating and persuasion of others (peers and adults). 16-19 years Communication with peers is becoming very important; differentiation between formal and informal language and its use in real life is becoming more and more important; young people use different means to communicate (via phones, mobile messaging, emails, facebook, etc. ). 023 Table 4: Social, emotional and behavioural development Age range Explain the sequence and rate of development 0-3 months First social contacts are being established mainly during feeding; at the end of the first month babies start to show first smiles which then gradually become response to familiar faces. 3-6 months Babies smile and squeal with delight when playing with familiar others. 6-9 months Babies try to stay close to their primary carers and around 8 months babies may become distressed when their primary carer leaves. 9-12 months Babies are fixed on their carers and do not want to be with strangers. 1-2 years Children start notice other children around them and they show some interest in them and later start parallel play. They also start show some frustrations and tantrums as they gradually discover some boundaries. 2-4 years Children play alongside others and may start copying their actions. Around the third year children become more aware of others and their needs which also reflects in their play which is gradually starting to be more and more cooperative. Children enjoy being praised by adults. 4-7 years Developing language is helping children to form better relationships and children begin to show some preferences in friendships. 7-12 years Friendships are becoming more stable and more important and may influence decision making (if my friend is doing something I might be more likely doing it also). Gender specific play is becoming more apparent. Children start to compare themselves to others. Children enjoy being given some responsibilities. 12-16 years Friends and friendships are very important and gradually opinions from friends might feel more important that those of parents/ carers. This leads to exploration and challenge of the boundaries of relationships as well as learning to deal with disagreements, arguments, etc. There are anxieties coming from pressures from school. 16-19 years Young people enjoy being with their friends, they are finding discovering their own identity and sense of belonging to a group/ groups of specific characteristics which defines for them who they are (religious groups, sport group, goth, etc. ) 023 Table 5: Moral development Age range Explain the sequence and rate of development 0-3 months 3-6 months 6-9 months 9-12 months Children might start paying attention to â€Å"no† and might stop their behaviour for a moment. 1-2 years Children are beginning to understand â€Å"no† and they start using it themselves. 2-4 years At the beginning of this phase still no understanding what is right or wrong but children understand when they are said â€Å"No†. Later they become able to follow some simple rules. Around 4 years children are becoming thoughtful at times but most of the times will decide what to do on the basis of adult approval. 4-7 years Children are beginning to understand rules; they try to understand them, follow them and may attempt to create their own rules where no rules are given (made-up game with friends). 7-12 years Children share their knowledge of rules with others and will readily point out if someone breaks the rules. Later they are becoming more aware of behaviour consequences and they are generally becoming more thoughtful. 12-16 years Children are beginning to be aware of a bigger picture – rules of communities and societies and they are beginning to understand the need for that. 16-19 years There is a interest in moral issues, finding out that right and wrong is not always black and white. Questioning and testing of rules. A2 Answer the following questions. 1. What is the difference between ‘sequence’ of development and ‘rate’ of development? 2. Why is the difference important? (Ref 1. 2) Q1. What is the difference between a sequence of development and rate of development? Sequence of development is the order in which development occurs, e. g. children are able to sit before they learn to crawl. The order of the sequences in development are always the same (even though there might be some individual differences: babies always learn to move about before standing up and walking, but some babies bottom-shuffle instead of crawling). Rate, on the other hand, is the speed in which individuals go through the stages/ sequences of development. Most children learn to walk when they are about 12 months old. However, some babies might be ready to walk when they are 10 months old and others when they are 15 months old. Individuals might also be developing with different rate in different areas, e. g. some children might be developing quickly physically, but their speech might be delayed. These individual differences are results of genetic predispositions and other biological influences as well as environmental stimulation. Q2. Why is the difference important? Knowing the sequences of development in different areas is important for practitioners to be able to plan accordingly and therefore to support the development in individuals. The rate of the development is important in terms of recognizing any atypical development and recommending/ searching any additional interventions when needed. TASK B Complete table; Research and report B1 Complete a table as shown on the following page, identifying the different personal and external factors that influence children and young people’s development. (Ref 2. 1, 2. 2) B2 Produce a report to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of differing theories of development. This report should identify how these theories have influenced current practice and include the following: Cognitive (e. g. Piaget) Psychoanalytic (e. g. Freud) Humanist (e. g. Maslow) Social learning (e. g. Bandura) Operant conditioning (e. g. Skinner) Behaviourist (e. g. Watson) Social pedagogy. Over the years there have been many theories trying to explain certain aspects of development, behaviour, learning, etc. In the following text we will look at the most influential theories which are being used by practitioners in better understanding as well as day to day work with children and young people. After a brief description of how an individual theory was founded, we will discuss the key points for work at nurseries. Theory of cognitive development (Constructivist approach) Theory of cognitive development is connected with the name of Jean Piaget (1896-1980) who through work on intelligence tests started to notice how children at same stages make very similar mistakes in their tasks and problem solving approaches. Piaget then closely observed his own children, capturing their development in details and later using these observations to create a theory of cognitive development. Piaget considered children as active learners who create ? schemas? (believes) about the world based on their experiences. This is how they make sense about what is happening around them. However, a child? s schemas are going to be challanged time to time by new and unexpected experiences and as a result existing schema will have to adapted to fit these in (e. g. touching something hot will alter the notion that everything is safe to touch and child will learn that certain objects can hurt when being touched). Piaget? s theory influenced the practice by having a ? child-centred? approach. In our setting, for example, we make regular observations on what our children are interested in and what they like to play/ do. After careful evaluations and identifications of possible next steps of development we plan activities which as well as reflecting children? s interest also further challenge them to encourage the development. Psychoanalytic theory of personality Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) suggested that every personality has got three parts to it – id, ego and superego. We all are born with id, which is the part of our personality that is driven by our desires and reflects in pleasure-seeking behaviour. Id is selfish and passionate and it is purely after satisfying its needs, known as ? gratification?. However, through social contact and learning babies/children gradually learn to be aware of the outside world and eventually of needs of others. They will be developing ego, which is able to plan the actions so the needs of the individual can still be met but in more socially desired way, e. g. ability to wait for once turn when the food is being served at pre-school settings. This is called ? differed gratification?. Later, as a result of further parenting and learning about social and cultural values, the superego is developed. Superego could be described as an internalised parent as the child is starting to be aware of what is good and what is bad without external reminder – e. g. I must not hit because it hurts. If the behaviour trespasses the imperatives of the superego, the individual will feel guilt as they are now aware that their behaviour was bad (this is referred as ? conscience? ). Apart from judging conscience, superego has got a notion of an ego-ideal to which it will strive. When ego demonstrates good behaviour the ego-ideal part of superego will reward this, e. g. feeling good after doing something for someone else even when external praise is not present. Even though Freud has been criticised for basing his description and explanations of development on sexual motives, some of his theoretical concepts are now widely accepted (e. g. the concept of unconscious mind – id and most of superego). One could say that orientation on children? s needs might be partly inspired by Freud? s ideas about the dynamics of id, ego and superego. Too strong superego and suppressed unconscious id will lead to many problems in adult life, where individual tries to live mainly by what is required by the outside world rather than allowing themselves to follow own desires. In early years healthy development of ego can be supported by putting the child and their needs in the centre of our attention; activities and work with children is individualized and child-led, yet still well planned and safe. For example, in our setting we might notice that a particular child enjoys opening and closing doors, gates, etc. Instead of completely discouraging him from doing that we might identify situations when it might be appropriate for him/her to do so and explain the necessary things around it in a child-friendly way (e. g. : When everybody has got their shoes on, you can open the door, Henry. , We will keep the gate closed now, because we are going to play in the yard now. , Mind your fingers when closing the door – you could close them in and that would really hurt. , etc. ). If we say ? no? to children it is good to make sure that the child knows about the reasons behind our decisions (even though they might find it hard initially anyway, they are more likely to come round and understand it in their own time). Humanistic theory of motivation and personality – Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Maslow studied motivation in people and came up with what is now known as Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow divided the needs into five categories (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualisation) and put them in hierarchical order from the most essential and basic needs to higher-order needs. Maslow argues that it is necessary to fulfil the needs from from the bottom of the hierarchy first to be able to meet the needs of higher order. Only when all the other lower needs are met, an individual can focus on fulfilling the highest needs of self-actualisation, such as creativity, problem solving, morality, etc. In our practice we are aware, that when a child is for example overtired and hungry (the most basic physiological needs), there is no space to try to fit in other things, e. g. ?wait for your turn? , ? say please? ,. (which would be working on their higher order needs, such as love/belonging (friendship) or esteem (respect for others, respect by others). This child at that stage needs to be fed and put to sleep as soon as possible and other input has to wait until the child is again able to tune to it/ receive it. Social cognitive theory Social cognitive theory has its roots in behaviouristic approach. However, Albert Bandura (born 1925), even though accepting learning by conditioning, argued that lots of learning happens through social observations (? observational learning? ). Observational learning is when children copy what other children or adults do; in comparison to conditioning, observational learning happens spontaneously and often without the need for reinforcement. Cognitive abilities seem to play an important role in observational learning as children need to be capable to notice the activity itself as well as remember it accurately. As staff we need to be mindful in the way we act and interact in front of children as they are likely to copy our behaviour. In accordance with the social cognitive theory we try to set good examples to the children in our settings by showing good manners and being courteous to them as well as to one another. Behaviourist approach to learning – operant conditioning Operant conditioning is based on classical conditioning (I. P. Pavlov; J. B. Watson), which teaches that certain behaviour/ reaction can be connected with a stimulus through conditioning, e. g. fear of cats after a bad experience with a cat. F. B. Skinner (1904-1990) however took this a bit further and through experiments mainly with pigeons and rats showed that learning can be strengthen by reinforcements, such as positive reinforcement (praise, sticker, attention, etc. ), negative reinforcement (this is removing something which is negative from the situation so it no longer poses a ? threat? or causes negative emotions and the whole experience becomes more positive, e. g. child does want to play with a toy because it is scared of the noises it makes – by switching the sound off, the child is able to explore the toy) and punishers (negative consequence which is likely to prevent individuals to repeat their behaviour – e. g. touching hot iron). Skinner researched most effective ways to retain the learnt behaviour and he found out that even though continuous positive reinforcement is good at the beginning of the learning, later unpredictable positive reinforcement keeps the learnt behaviour in place for longer period of time. This is because even though the reward comes frequently, we are not sure when it is going to come next and therefore we keep doing the behaviour. At our setting we might be using operant conditioning for example when we are helping a child to potty train. First every sitting on the potty, regardless of results will be rewarded. When the child gets into the habit of sitting on the potty, then only successful potty session will be rewarded with a sticker (however praise for trying when unsuccessful remains). When starting to do regularly this stickers might gradually become praise and sticker will be awarded if the child successfully asks for potty when they need it. Behaviourist approach to learning – Classical conditioning J. B. Watson (1878 – 1958) followed I. P. Pavlov? s work on classical conditioning with animals (dogs salivating when food arrived became then salivating even at the mere sight of the bowl; Pavlov took this further by conditioning completely unrelated food stimulus, such as bell or light, which after regular presence at the mealtimes would later on its own initiate the salivating response in dogs). Watson showed that classical conditioning is possible in humans as well (famous Little Albert experiment, where a baby was conditioned to have fear of rats). Classical conditioning is not really used in practice as a active way of teaching, however its theory can be used for observational purposes (e. g. recognising when sucking thumb signals hunger etc. ). Social pedagogy Social pedagogy is a discipline which brings together theory and practice in order to assure the best and holistic way of supporting children in their development and education. The overall aim of social pedagogy is to give children and young people the best possible chances for their future lives. In accordance with social pedagogy the Early Years Foundation Stage Framework (EYFS) has been devised to capture the development in early years and to help professionals to monitor, plan and support effectively individual development. For better and focused understanding the development has been divided into seven areas, out of which three are recognised as prime areas (Personal, Social and Emotional Development; Communication and Language; Physical Development) and four are described as specific areas of development (Literacy; Mathematics; Understanding the World; Expressive Arts and Design). The support the professionals can provide is differentiated into helpful advice in positive relationship and suggestions for enabling environments. In EYFS we can see influence of Piaget? s work in enabling environments where the focus is predominantly on individual? s own experience. We can also strongly identify the theory of ? zone of proximal development? by Vygotsky (cognitive development) in EYFS as we can easily identify where children are in their development, what is the next developmental stage for them and how we can support this next step. 023 Personal and external factors influencing development B3 Personal Factors: Give ONE explanation of a positive influence on the development of children and young people Health status: given by genetic predispositions as well as environmental factors, such as diet, pollution, stress, etc. If obesity is genetically passed on in the family than healthy diet together with developing positive attitude towards regular exercise will help the child to maintain a good health. Disability: Physical impairment, such as missing or underdeveloped limb Wheel chair together with barrier free environment (e. g. lifts, ramps, low sinks, etc. ) will help to support independence of an individual. Sensory impairment: visual impairments, hearing impairments, death-blindness, When working with individuals with visual impairment, we can use the other senses to compensate and provide necessary stimulation which helps the development, e. g. using special toys/ learning material which uses touch and sound as a mean of gaining information. However, if there is some vision left (which usually there is), the environment can be adjusted by using contrast colours, non-reflective material, good lighting, etc. Learning difficulties: Dyslexia, dyspraxia, dysgraphia, dysortographia, ADHD, ADD Children with ADHD benefit from having a regular routine. Activities needs to be short and well planned with simple and easy to follow instructions. Hands-on activities with regular physical exercise and lots of praise are essential. External Factors: Poverty and deprivation: poor diet, inadequate housing, lack of education, lack of access to play and leisure, low aspirations and expectations Good education can help the individual to break from the poverty and secure them a better brighter future. Family environment/background: neglecting parents, abusive parents, parents with alcohol or other drug-taking problems, ill parents who are not able to provide adequate environment for their children, etc. Parents who are ill and no longer able to fully provide for their children could be provided with carers who would help with the overall smooth running of the household, caring for needs of the disabled parent and the needs of the children, while keeping the family itself together. Personal choices: from certain age children/ young people make some decisions for themselves which can have effect on their development, e. g. taking drugs, changing their diet, etc. To help to prevent drug-taking it is important to support the development of a positive self-image and healthy self-esteem; education and raising awareness of dangers of drug-abuse is also a helpful preventative measure. Looked after/care status: children in residential care, in foster families, in their own family but having care status (they are the responsibility of local authorities). If children are being fostered it is beneficial if siblings can stay together. Education: Educational system, through family itself, through other groups (religious groups, sport groups, hobbies and interests, etc. ) Finding out strengths of an individual (which do not have to necessarily academic) and building upon those to build a healthy self-esteem and recognition of self-worth – this can help to compe with other weaker areas in a positive way. 023 Task C Report Produce a short report in the form of an induction pack for new staff at a setting, covering the following. a. Give two examples of assessment methods that could be used to monitor a child/young person’s development. (Ref 3. 1) b. Give three examples of why sometimes child/young person’s development does not follow the expected pattern. (Ref 3. 2) c. Give one explanation of how disability can impact and affect development. (Ref 3. 3) d. Give three examples of different types of intervention that could promote positive outcomes for the child/young person, where development is not following the expected pattern. (Ref 3. 4) a. In our setting we use several assessment methods to monitor our children? s development. The most used one is a short free description on sticky labels – these capture a specific short observation in a specific area of development (e. g. Physical Development); the date and the identified area/ areas get recorded on the label. This method of recording information is useful for gathering evidence of the progress of development in specific areas and building a developmental profile of an individual child. We also use specific observation sheets, on which we capture a more detailed and complex observation. In the next section on the sheet the observation is evaluated and areas of the development are identified (often more than one). In the last section we identify the next steps for the child and how we can help the child to achieve that. We have two types of observation sheets in our settings following this format – one is purely written observation, the other one is a photo observation sheet. This method of recording and evaluation allows us not only to add to the developmental profile of each child but also to plan effectively to further support the child? s development. b. There are many possible reason why at times the development might not follow the expected pattern. Apart from the most obvious ones, such as disabilities and special learning needs, the development can get affected by external factors, such as environmental reasons, cultural reasons, social reasons; and specific individual reasons, such as emotional reasons, physical reasons and communication difficulties. Environmental reasons: Among environmental reasons which may affect child? s development is for example where and in what conditions a child lives and what type of school they attend. Social reasons: There might be big differences between children in terms of wealth of their families, family status and family structure (big family with strong bonds in comparison to divorced parents with negative mutual relationship), education of parents as well as their ability to tune themselves to the needs of their children – all of these will affect the way children will be developing. Communication skills: Slower developing communication skills have got potential to negatively influence the development in other areas. The inability to effectively express themselves may result in frustrations in children and aggressive behaviour as well as consequently lower literacy skills. Similar effects can be observed in children whose families? language is not the dominant language of the country. If the dominant language is not fully acquired the child may significantly struggle once at school. c. Disability can affect more than one area of development as children can become frustrated and their self-esteem can be lowered. The attitudes of low expectations and stereotyping by others will also have a secondary negative impact on a child? s development. d. There are several ways how difficulties in development can be recognised, monitored and positively supported. Educational establishments will have appointed SENCO, a person who is responsible for identification and organising further support for children with special needs. If appropriate Educational psychologist will be contacted to make a full assessment and recommendations in how to support individuals in education (behavioural problems and learning difficulties). Suggested interventions may be discussed with parents and with learning support assistants and individual educational plan might be written up and followed. If there are any issues with speech and communication, Speech and language therapist will be consulted – the outcomes of the assessment will lead to a specific plan of action, often involving regular contact in which special exercises will be explained, practised and taught to children and their parents/carers/other professionals for them to be able to support the children outside the sessions. If a child? s physical development is affected, physiotherapist can provide help with special exercises and massages to aid the physical development, maximize the range of movement and develop the appropriate movement control. Task D Report Produce a report which explains the following: a. Why is early identification of speech, language or communication delay important for a child/young person’s well-being? (Ref 4. 1) b. What are the potential risks for the child/young person’s well-being if any speech, language or communication delay is not identified early? (Ref 4. 1) c. Analyse the importance of early identification of the potential risks of late recognition to speech, language and communication delays and disorders. (Ref 4. 1) d. Who might be involved in a multi-agency team to support a child/young person’s speech, language and communication development? (Ref 4. 2) e. How, when and why would a multi-agency approach be applied? (Ref 4. 3) f. Give four different examples of play opportunities and describe how you would put them into practice to support the development of a child/young person’s speech, language and communication. (Ref 4. 3) a. Early identification of the language and communication difficulties is important as it can support the development to prevent further (secondary) impact on other areas. Also, as the brains in young children have not finished their development, the earlier we can intervene, the better prospects of success we have. b. Problems in language and communication can have a negative effect on other areas of development, such as cognitive and social development. Children with language and communication difficulties are more likely to struggle at school in learning to read and write, which can have further negative impact not only on other subjects but more importantly on their self-esteem. Children with such problems can become gradually isolated. c. Early identification of the potential risks of late recognition to speech, language and communication delays and disorders is very important in terms of putting the most appropriate interventions in place to support the development and benefit the children? s needs. Well timed and well tailored intervention has got the potential to optimize the development and to minimize potential negative impact for other areas of development. d. In the multi-agency team to support the child with speech, language and communication there will be the child? s GP or a health visitor, who will make a referral to a speech and language specialist. If there is a suspicion that the communication difficulties are connected with learning difficulties Educational Psychologist will be consulted. When it is decided on the type of intervention needed, the parents, the educational setting professionals and the rest of the team should work together in order to implement the chosen intervention in order to meet the needs of the child. e. Multi-agency approach is used when parents and/ or other professionals (such as GP, early years settings, etc. ) have recognised that a child is in need of additional help to aid the development. Different professionals are involved in the assessment of the needs (e. g. GP to assess potential hearing or other impairments) and speech and language therapist devises the best possible individual support. Multi-agency approach brings together different fields of expertise to assure the best possible outcome for the child. f. There are many informal opportunities how children? s communication and language development can be supported. These might often be more effective than formal exercises as they naturally meet the child in they world of play, making it more motivating and fun. Nursery rhymes and songs Children enjoy joining in nursery rhymes and songs. These are short and memorable and their rhythmical pattern make them perfect little exercises for developing language, pronunciation and fluency (good practice when dealing with stutter). Books are perfect for developing passive and active vocabulary, understanding meaning of words and learning correct sentence structure informally. Books are a wonderful way to spark children? s imagination as well as teaching them to express themselves about the world around them by providing the relevant vocabulary. Pictures in books make it possible for children from the earliest age to actively engage with the story as well as to engage in a dialogue with another person. Dressing up and role play again helps the child in an informal way to engage in talking and communication with others whilst enjoying the imaginative play. Puppets are a fantastic way how to involve children in communication through play. Children are fascinated by puppets and enjoy adults taking active part in their play, which again allows for an opportunity to develop language and communication in a fun way. 023 Task E Complete table Complete the table on the next page, showing how the different types of transitions can affect children and young people’s development and evaluate how having positive relationships during this period of transition would be of benefit. Additional Guidance Different types are: a. Emotional, affected by personal experience, e. g. bereavement, entering/leaving care. b. Physical, e. g. moving to a new educational establishment, a new home/locality, from one activity to another. c. Physiological e. g. puberty, long-term medical conditions. d. Intellectual, e. g. moving from pre-school to primary, to post-primary. (Ref 5. 1, 5. 2) Give ONE specific example of a transition Give ONE possible effect on children and young people’s development Evaluate the benefit of a positive relationship during this period of transition ~ provide ONE example Emotional: Bereavement Depression which may affect sleep pattern, children may become lethargic and less interested in engaging in any activities which may affect they social, emotional and cognitive development Positive relationship with open communication and listening skills allows for a child to ask difficult questions and share their worries and sadness, to talk over difficult memories and anxieties about the future. This may help with overcoming the past and the sadness. Physical: Moving home Moving home may effect the children social development as they may lose previous friends and find themselves unable to fit in new friendship groups. Some children might start having food issues, such as overeating to deal with anxieties. This can affect their emotional, social and physical development. Positive relation can provide a helping hand with dealing with the new situation while supporting the self-esteem and encouraging the confidence in a young person. Positive relationship can also act as model of skills of how to establish a new relationship. Physiological: Gaining a physical disability – e. g. lost limb Withdrawal – children may become very solitary, unable and unwilling to join in with their peers, which can affect their physical, emotional, social as well as cognitive development. Positive relationship will communicate acceptance and healthy support in dealing with a life-changing situation; this should help in dealing with difficulties as they come Intellectual: Moving from pre-school to primary school Lack of concentration and motivation as the child might feel overwhelmed by new routines and new demands which they might find very difficult – this may affect their natural cognitive development and they might regress into safer younger stage of development. Positive relationship will allow for a child to feel safe, valued and as achieving (in their own pace) by identifying the appropriate approach of working with the child with the sensitivity to their specific needs and pace of development.

Theories in Nationalism

Theories in Nationalism Introduction Nationalism, a term which has been defined in various ways and still continues to nurture the debate around it, is one of the strongest forces in the world as we know it today. Despite its strong influence during the last centuries, it has remained long neglected by academia (Hutchinson Smith 1994: 3). One of the first scholars to address this academic shortcoming was Elie Kedourie, a British scholar of the Middle East, who offered a conservative challenging theory against nationalism in his thought-provoking book entitled Nationalism. In this sense, it is safe to say that most scholars concerned with this field of study have been influenced, to some extent, by the work of Kedourie and have taken issue with it. Kedourie has dealt with nationalism in a number of books, presenting his passionate dissent against the spread of nationalism as an ideology in Europe. His book Nationalism identifies nationalism as a doctrine invented in Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century (1960: 9) that divides humanity into separate and distinct nations (1960: 73). As a scholar who spent a large proportion of his life teaching, Kedourie emphasized the importance of understanding the philosophy of history and the value of its practice, and criticized academics for meddling with political affairs (Kedourie, 1998a: 51; Minogue, 2008). A fervent advocate of strong, long-lasting empires, he argued, that nationalism as an ideology had caused global wars, destruction, and great misery (Sieff 2006). The objective of this paper is to critically assess Kedouries contribution to the study of nationalism. For this purpose, this essay is structured as follows; firstly, it sets the context by briefly introducing the life and works of Elie Kedourie. This is important as, growing up an Iraqi Jew, Kedourie personally experienced the negative impacts of Arab nationalism which caused him as most other Jews to flee his home country. Kedourie blamed British policy for the rise of nationalism in the Middle East, a policy he later criticized in his works. The essay then proceeds to identify and explain his concept of, and arguments against nationalism; next, it explores Elie Kedouries dialogue with three theorists who were influenced by and developed Kedouries ideas; and finally, it presents a critique of his theory and concepts. In summary, this paper demonstrates Kedouries unique attitude towards and his innovative theory of nationalism, but also the flaws in his theory based on which led ma ny of his followers and critics to charge him with intellectual determinism (Lawrence 2005: 132). Kedourie and His Works Kedourie was undoubtedly a man of great achievement. An Iraqi-Jew, he was born in Baghdad on January 25, 1926, but migrated to Great Britain as part of the post-1948 Jewish mass departure from the Arab world (Minogue 2008). In his doctoral thesis, England and the Middle East (1956), which he wrote at Oxford University, he, for the first time, systematically criticized the British foreign policy and its inter-war role in Iraq (Kramer 1999). Accordingly, his controversial thesis was not only much debated, but Kedourie was asked to change it. However, Kedourie felt so strongly about his writings that rather than modify it, he withdrew it! Throughout his life, Kedourie offered a seminal analysis that expounded the state of world affairs and exposed the evil of nationalism. Although he published his most important book entitled Nationalism decades ago, Kedouries ideas still resonate today and are being studied by a number of critics and theorists of nationalism. Kedourie was brought back into academia by his colleague Michael Oakeshott, and consequently held a chair in Politics at the London School of Economic for 40 years. He was an expert on Middle Eastern history, founder and editor of the journal Middle Eastern Studies (1964), and the author and editor of many outstanding books, especially on the Middle East. In contrast to many other scholars of and on the Middle East, Kedourie was able to see it in a wider world context (Mango 1993: 375). This interest led him from Arab nationalism to his study of nationalism as a universal phenomenon. The significance of this, was that it changed the traditional thinking of nationalism and brought to awareness its disastrous influence and its major potential in threatening world order. Besides the book Nationalism, his published works also include Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Islam (1966), the famous The Chatham House Version (1970), Nationalism in Asia and Africa (1970), and Arabic Political Memoirs and Other Studies (1974). Among his later books are In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth (1980), The Crossman Confessions (1984), Politics in the Middle East (1992), and Hegel and Marx: Introductory Lectures, his posthumous book published in 1995. Kedourie impressed with his sharp intellect and his rather eloquent, clear and coherent writing style. Although English was his third language, his works were written in an excellent English style worthy of one of the greatest orientalists and scholars of our time (Moreh 1998: 2). Especially in his book Nationalism, he manages to draw a clear and red line from the sometimes very abstract explorations of the foundations, on which he then builds his theory, to the explanation of his approac h itself. In addition, Kedouries personality stood out in academia. As opposed to many academics, Kedourie neither locked himself in the so-called academic ivory tower, nor did he fall into the circle of self-adoration. Kedourie, more than anything else, was a mentor and father figure to his students (Salibi 1994)! Although he was sometimes referred to as idealistic, most of his students and scholars alike remember Kedourie as humble, dignified, kind, and a generous scholar with quiet and gentle courtesy which one could always count on (Salibi 1994). Kedouries Concept and Critique of Nationalism After the two World Wars, a grouping of independent states created the United Nations and other international bodies, such as the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) or theEuropean Economic Community (EEC), and forged multilateral treaties (for example Treaty of Paris, NATO, Warsaw Pact) to sustain peace and worldwide cooperation in the hope of preventing another global conflict. Kedourie believed that many calamitous global events, such as war, destruction, poverty, famine and genocide, were caused by a doctrine of nationalism, which justified the division of nations. Kedourie (1993b: xiii) viewed nationalism as an ideology and believed that it had been made a contrived religion by governments to justify their actions and to maintain their so-called right to national self-determination (Kelidar 1993: 5-6). Kedourie laid out his controversial theory against the nationalism doctrine in his book Nationalism. In the first chapter, Politics in a New Style, he explains his pessimism about ideological and constitutional politics, which presupposes nationalism as an effective force to strengthen and preserve the identity and authority of a nation (Spencer Wollman 2002: 49). In the following chapters, he tackled the concept of self-determination, which the intellectuals, particularly Immanuel Kant, brandished as the supreme political good (Kedourie 1993a: 22); the relation of state and individual, wherein he criticized the influence of Kant on modern thinkers and the effects of dangerous political ideas on individuals; diversity, which spread the world over as a result of the propagation of nationalism; and national self-determination, which has caused the division of states into nations, disorders and wars. In the last two chapters, he addressed the relationship between nationalism and politi cs and its negative consequences. Kedourie was the first theorist who addressed nationalism systematically and identified it as (an historically erroneous) doctrine. His path-breaking theory introduced new standards to the traditional studies of the phenomenon which saw in granting self-determination the only acceptable way to deal with nationalism. Kedourie relied on historical accounts of global events and on this basis identified three strong arguments against nationalism. Firstly, he claimed that nationalism as a political ideology was impotent and had no significance to reality. Secondly, he asserted that the divisive character of nationalism caused and will continue to cause wars and man-made catastrophes. Finally, he saw nationalism as being about the enshrinement of the concept of sovereignty or self-determination as the fundamental force of global order (Kedourie 1993b: xvi). With regards to his first argument, nationalism was seen as being a political ideology due to its extensive relation to politics. He observed that the doctrine was first conceived and then propagated in Europe in the last century (Deol, 2000: 12). It was an era when nationalism was systematically turned into kind of religion to inspire the people and make them believe that they had a duty and responsibility to serve their homeland. According to Kedourie, the purpose of ideological politics was to impose political culture, legal principles and moral standards on people by means of force (1986: 47-48). When a government seeks to establish an ideology, it can only do so through the use of force and arbitrary powers. He identified the platonic character of this strategy, which posits that a state or society has to eliminate the ideology of the people so as to impose its own political culture or ideology (Kedourie 1993b: xiv). Kedouries argument is clear: ideological politics in the last century has caused many horrific events because of the ideologists attempt to change the status quo and to enforce their own ideology on the masses. As an example he mentioned the case of Yugoslavia. Following its creation after the First World War, Yugoslavia sought to attain unity in order to establish an independent state, but such a national ambition was waylaid when the Yugoslavs fell into the oppressive hands of the Hungarians, Austrians and Ottomans. Another argument he made against ideological politics was that a state that espoused nationalism caused the division of its individual subjects and separation between the government and the governed. Kedourie asserted that a society that adopted certain kinds of principles deprived the people of their rights. A group of people treated as mere ciphers by their rulers would be led to treat their fellow men in the same way. Turning to his second argument nationalism will lead to war and manmade disasters- Kedourie explained that nationalism supports the division of humanity into a number of states and thus also supports the division of men in terms of race, tradition, religion, and political ideology (1986: 71-73). Since nations are divided into many categories, Kedourie argues that wars and disasters are inevitable. He argued that conflicts and chaos ravaged the whole of Europe between 1848 and the end of World War II because of the concept of nationalism (Kedourie 1993b: xvi). However, he rejected the argument that poverty is somehow linked to nationalism. Since most poor countries have prevalent nationalist ideology, he believed that poor economic conditions might bring about social displeasure, which may lead to the propagation of nationalism (Kedourie 1974c: 19). However, he claimed that the rise of nationalism in Czechoslovakia and Italy was not due to evident poverty. Furthermore, Kedourie believed that the development of nationalism in Asia and Africa was basically a reaction to invasion and foreign occupation (1974: 21). Lastly, he criticized socialism as an ideological obsession that caused great destruction in the last century. He states (1993b: xvii) that socialism has produced not happiness or spiritual fulfilment, or even material prosperity, but, on the contrary, unparalleled oppression and misery, and it has sunk by the weight of its own misconceived ideals. Moreover, he suggested that the collapse of Soviet Russia in 1991 had led to a precarious disproportion of power among its former constituents and their neighbours. Hence, he warned that this power vacuum could lead to war. He concluded that nationalist ideology did not evidently ensure economic success or honest and responsible government. Kedouries condemnation of nationalism and by extension his path-breaking theory, was seen by many theorists on nationalism that followed as a milestone in the evolution of the theoretical debate (Ozkirimli 2000: 32). As a consequence, the vast majority of these theorists took issue with his theory in one way or another. Kedouries Influence on other Theorists of Nationalism Kedouries passionate arguments against nationalism gained both the admiration and support of a coterie of loyal followers but also drew some harsh criticism. Undoubtedly, he contributed enormously to the great debate about the origins and nature of nationalism. As a man of exceptional intellectual reputation with exacting standards in his thinking and scholarship, Kedourie was immensely influential on many modern scholars and his students alike (Salibi 1994: 4) and thus, achieved to transform and revolutionize the understanding of nationalism (Minogue 2008; Kelidar 1993: 5-6). Three distinguished theorists of nationalism who admired Kedourie, but took issue with his ideas are Ernest Gellner, Anthony Smith, and Benedict Anderson. All of these theorists built on the works of Kedourie, and this made for a great contribution to the debate about the nature and roots of nationalism that dominated the European community in the nineteenth century (Gellner 1996: xix). Smith openly elaborated on the intellectual depth of Kedouries seminal arguments against the concept of nationalism, saying that the latters works continue to exert a wide influence on modern thinkers like him (2007: 213). Similarly, Gellner credited Kedouries work but also attributed a lot of critique to Kedouries ideas (Gray 2004). This paper will now examine in more depth some of these issues in order to provide a critical evaluation of the strengths as well as limits of Kedouries arguments. Anthony D. Smith For his part, Smith agreed with Kedouries concept of nationalism as an ideological crusade that seeks the achievement and maintenance of national sovereignty, harmony, and distinctiveness, on behalf of a particular group of inhabitants (2007: 214). Smith reiterated Kedouries argument that although nationalism was sparked by the myth of the French Revolution, this ideological movement was inspired by Kant, which then in turn influenced Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Smith claimed that the main proponent of nationalism was Fichte, a Kantian, who, in his Addresses to the German Nation (1808), established an agenda for the creation of a German national education (Choueiri 2000: 6). Smith concurred with Kedourie that this secular ideological movement was inspired by the declaration of independence, which states that sovereignty resides exclusively in the state. Smith (2007a: 217) also regarded nationalism as a secular form of religion, and concluded that traditional religions like Judaism preserve their character and that they contribute to the propagation of nationalism by serving as agents of collective sentiments. Smith thus supported Kedouries statement that Judaism is a religion that accentuates the value of land and language and national feeling (1993b: 76) and suggested that there are cultural similarities between modern nationalism and biblical Israel and its covenant. This being said, in his Theories of Nationalism, Smith criticized Kedourie for selecting only the extreme features of nationalism, thus overlooking the civilizing and empowering influence of the doctrine (Jinadu 1972: 646). Benedict Anderson In his Imagined Communities: Reflection on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, Benedict Anderson, a modernist theorist like Kedourie, identifies the rise of capitalism at the beginning of industrialization era as the main reason for the emergence of nationalism: peoples literacy level increased due to the emergence of printing press capitalism. No longer were they dependent on the church for getting information. As a result, member of various communities became aware of each other and hence it helped them imagine the nation and the feeling of being a nation (Capmack 2005). In complete contrast to Kedouries hostility to the idea of nationalism, Anderson posits that nationalism contributes to a better society and encourages good behaviour: You follow the laws because they are your laws (2005). However, he agrees with Kedourie on the importance of history, arguing that such doctrines as nationalism or nationality are like cultural relics that can only be understood by tracing their historical roots, nature and motivations (1991: 4). He thus stated that eighteenth century Europe was not simply marked by the beginning of nationalism but by the end of religious forms of thought. Changes in the religious community, according to Anderson, gave rise to the belief that nationalism was a secular solution to the question of continuity that had been answered previously by religious faith. He wrote: What I am proposing is that nationalism has to be understood by aligning it, not with self-consciously-held political ideologies, but with the large cultural systems that preceded it- out of which, as well as against which- it came into being (1991: 11). Hence, in many ways, Anderson simply complements the arguments raised by Smith and Kedourie that the form of nationalism that dominates the world today is a combination of traditional religions and of secular political ideologies based on national self-determination. Another similarity arises by looking at their views on nationalism and language. Anderson suggested that language could be used as a cohesive force to nurture peoples love of their country. For example, songs, poetry, and national anthems are used as effective agents of nationalism (1991: 145). Accordingly, the use of language is a significant reason for the emergence of independent, divided states and the proliferation of print-word (Mar-Molinero Smith 1996: 70). Similarly, though more pessimistic and with almost sad undertones, Kedourie elaborates that language is a strong expression of ones individuality and thus the most important criterion for a nation to be recognized and to exist (1986: 64). The emphasis on language with regards to nations, and by extension of states, has had many negative side-effects among which language has been transformed into a political issue for which men are ready to kill and exterminate each other (1985: 71). Ernest Gellner Gellners Nations and Nationalism was a direct response to Elie Kedouries theory, which Gellner believed lacked any real comprehension of the reality of nationalism, as a result of its overly intellectual focus (Gellner 1983). He dissented on the idealist argument of Kedourie that nationalism was the consequence of a historical anomaly and intellectual blunders, and suggested that it was rather an unavoidable by-product of economic and technical progress (Gray 2004). Moreover, Gellner rejected the premise that the concept of nationalism was based on the philosophy of Kant, and then spread by inept philosophers and intellectuals. He defended Kant, maintaining that there is no relationship, other than a verbal one, between individual self-determination and national self-determination, and that Kant was a very model for that allegedly bloodless, cosmopolitan, emaciated ethic of the Enlightenment which romantic nationalists detested (OLeary 1997: 198). Similar to Kedouries pessimistic view, Gellner perceived nationalism as the strongest principle of political legitimacy in the modem world and stated that nations should be collectively and freely institutionally expressed, and ruled by its co-nationals.Nationalism invents nations where they do not exist. (1964: 168). Apart from nationalism, Gellner (1985: 1) believed that reformism and industrialization were the two enormous forces that were changing the world. This was his main departure from the concept suggested by Kedourie. Gellners derisive arguments against nationalism perturbed secular rationalists, socialists, and conservatives. He agreed with Kedourie that nationalism presupposes that such important concepts as social justice, material progress, utility and reason, rational principles and law are merely consequential doctrines in supporting and imposing an established and justifiable socio-political order, thus inciting unrelenting denunciation from socialists and liberals for about two centuries (OLeary 1997: 192) Although it appears that Gellner presented similar views to those expressed by Kedourie, he did, however, criticize Kedourie for omitting the sociological analysis in his study of nationalism. Gellner believed that nationalism became a sociological necessity in the modern world, whereas Kedourie rejected any sociological explanation as a form of reductionist economism (Kramer 1999: 637-638), and maintained that history has no depths to be plumbed or main lines to be traced out, and that history does not need explanatory principles, but only words to tell how things were (Kramer 1993). I believe that the differences between Gellner and Kedourie are rather of an epistemological nature than of a fundamental one. Although they dissent on origins of nationalism and on the type of their analysis, the basic concepts of their theories, however, do have significant similarities. For instance, they both recognize nationalism as a modern doctrine. Moreover, they both share a pessimistic view of nationalism and point out its dangerous consequences. Perhaps the similar nature between Gellners and Kedouries theories might be attributed to the significant influence that Kedourie had on Gellner. Lawrence (2005: 132) supports this idea when he writes: his focus on the links between nationalism and modernization certainly inspired later theorists such as Gellner and Hobsbawm. Critique / Conclusion Kedouries basic contention was one of enormous skepticism and suspicion especially vis-Ã  -vis third world nationalism, which he perceived as a reaction to European nationalism (1974: 1-153). It appears that his personal experiences greatly influenced his pessimism towards nationalism in general, and more specifically his rather hostile attitude toward a nations self-determination, leading to one of the main flaws in Kedouries theory. He was certain that the idea of national self-determination was not only absurd, but also destructive, immoral and could only lead to violence and discord in domestic politics (Minogue, 2008). Kedourie further postulated that the origins of self-determination were the Age of Enlightenment, which led men to discover the law of nature and rational principles, and its philosophical corollary-the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. This declaration states that a nation must exercise autonomy and that no man or group of men can go beyond the ambit of the law. Kedourie (1993: xiv) wrote: The law was universal, but this did not mean that there were no differences between men; it meant rather that there was something common to them all which was more important than any differences. While taking this rather skeptical stance, Kedourie failed to really develop his arguments on this particular issue any further, and thus left himself open to criticism based on philosophical and historical concerns. He successfully presented a path-breaking theory against the perils of nationalism. Historical events tell us that extreme nationalism has caused global disasters, wars, and massive poverty in the past. He was right in arguing that both conservative and socialist governments subscribed to the ideology of nationalism to achieve their national goals. Kedourie and other nationalist critics exposed nationalism as a dangerous political ideology that must be rejected. Smith, Anderson, and Gellner developed Kedouries theory by presenting the causes, historical origins, and consequences of nationalism. Furthermore, today one might argue that some collectivist countries like North Korea, China, Cuba, among others have made nationalism a secular religion. However, Kedouries theory was not flawless as the section above has to some extent already shown. Kedourie may have raised valid arguments against nationalism; however, as Smith pointed out, the relationship between ideology and nationalism is not always a negative one. In fact, for example, in the case of the periphery countries of the former Soviet Union, history has shown that a nationalist ideology enabled and mobilized people to free themselves from factors which enslaved them. Kedouries somewhat one-sided and hostile portrait of nationalism ignores its constructive aspects and its vital role in creating, as well as controlling, social and political change. Another major flaw in his work is of epistemological nature. Throughout his book one question repeatedly comes to mind: How does he know that? For instance, looking at the question of origin, he connects nationalism with the French revolution as mentioned above. However, why, accordingly to Kedourie, was there no nationalism before the modern era? He does not take issue with this and thus fails to give sufficient evidence for his argument and against more primordial views on nationalism. Moreover, Kedourie perceives nationalism as a (secular) form of religion and thus he suggests that it may substitute the traditional religions. According to him, the religious origins of nationalism are used merely for political purposes. However, he neglects the relationship between religion and pre-modern ethnic identities in many areas of the world and then overlooks religious and secular roots of modern nationalism and, thus over-simplifies the relation between religion and modern nationalism (Hutchinson Smith 1994: 70). Finally, it appears that his views on ideology and nationalism were heavily influenced by his personal experiences, as well as the British academic attitudes of that time, which were fundamentally skeptical of any ideology per se (personal conversation with lecturer). For instance, Michael Oakeshott, a mentor and colleague of Kedourie, doubted the political action and questioned the assertions made in defence of political ideology (Kedourie 1998a: 111). Kedourie was exposed to the teachings of early British scholars like Oakeshott who dismissed the notion of a science of politics. This is one of the reasons behind his pessimistic view on ideology and his scorn of the academics interference in politics. In the final analysis, however, I agree with Kedouries skeptical contention as, looking at the world today and how nationalism as portrayed by Kedourie has infected and affected many countries towards the negative, his warning proved to be valid. 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ELIE KEDOURIE, CBE., FBA 1926-1992, [Online], London, Portland-Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers , p. 132 Available at: http://www.dangoor.com/74006.html [Accessed 18 November 2009] OLeary, B 1997, On the Nature of Nationalism: An Appraisal of Ernest Gellners Writings on Nationalism, British Journal of Political Science, [Online], Apr., 27(2), pp. 191-222, Ozkirimli, U 2000, Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction, Palgrave Macmillan Salibi, K 1994, Edie Kedourie: A Tribute, Middle Eastern Studies, 30, Thirty Volume Index 1964-1994, pp. 1-5 Sieff, M 2006, Isaiah Berin and Elie Kedourie: Recollections of Two Giants, Covenant, [internet], Nov., 1(1), Available at: http://www.covenant.idc.ac.il/en/vol1/issue1/sieff.html [Accessed 16 November 2009] Smith, D.A 2007a, Nation and Covenant: The Contribution of Ancient Israel to Modern Nationalism, Proceedings of the British Academy, 151, pp. 213-255 Smith, D.A 1971b, Theories of Nationalism, Michigan: Duckworth Spencer, P. Wollman, H 2002, Nationalism: A Critical Introduction, California: SAGE Publishing

Statutory Rape Essay -- essays research papers

Statutory Rape Laws The term â€Å"statutory rape† is used when the government considers people under a certain age to be unable to give consent to sex and therefore consider sexual contact with them to be a rape. The age at which individuals are considered to give consent is called the age of consent. The age of consent can ranging from thirteen to twenty-one, depending on the limits set by each state in accordance with local standards of morality. Even sex that violates the age-of-consent laws but is neither violent nor physically forced is described as statutory rape. In most jurisdictions, the expressions â€Å"under-age sex† or â€Å"sex with a minor† are more commonly used. After many years of prosecuting statutory rape laws, some people are being to question whether or not these laws when concerning non-violent â€Å"sex with a minor† are actually appropriate and effective in protecting the rights of minors. The people who support statutory rape laws would argue that in any relationship where one legal aged partner is significantly older than the other, the older of the two has a greater power advantage over the younger. Thus even if a person under the age of consent agrees to sexual activity, it is still considered lawfully to be rape, because that person is not mature enough to make a well thought-out decision. Adults fear that the younger person in the relationship may be unconsciously forced emotionally, if not physically, into engaging in sexual acts with their partner. According to the Taking Sides (Issue 17), â€Å"Statutory rape laws are designed, in part, to keep these types of unequal relationships from becoming human nature.† Others who disagree with statutory rape laws claim that the problem arises when young legal aged men, are sentenced to jail for statutory rape based solely on the age difference between him and his partner. These convicted young men state that once the parents of their younger partner find out about the two having sex, the parents just wanted to punish the men. The argument for the opponents of statutory rape laws declared that some teenagers mature faster than others. Consequently, people no matter the age should able to make their own decisions regarding sex, so long as sex remains consensual by both parties. But then again, how can one prove that the younger teenager is more mature than that of their average age? Personally, I support the... ...young girls from sexually abused relationships. According to one study stated in Taking Sides (Issue 17), â€Å"seventy-four percent of women who had intercourse before age fourteen and sixty percent of women who had sex before fifteen report having had a forced sexual experience.â€Å" Another hope is that with statutory rape laws, society will decrease the teen pregnancy rate and the number of young families who are fatherless. Statutory rape laws are valuable in protecting the rights of minors. Possibly, if the laws were revamped to suit the changing attitudes’ of modern society, the law would be more effective. In place of worrying about the misinterpreted claims of statutory rape, prosecutors can focus on the more crucial cases. With more defined modern guidelines, society would be aware of the laws regarding statutory rape and some more pleased. Statutory rape laws are no longer used to prohibit teenagers from having sex. Instead, the regulations are to make certain that the teenagers who are having sexual intercourse are not unknowingly being emotionally forced into it by their significantly older partner’s power. Ideally, statutory rape laws can only improved the lives of teenagers.

Energy Demand Essay -- Environment, Green Energy

This year, the world is predicted to burn through some thirty-one billion barrels of oil, six billion tons of coal, and a hundred trillion cubic feet of natural gas, and producing over thirty tons of carbon dioxide. Nobody really knows when the last drop of oil, lump of coal or cubic foot of natural gas will be collected from the Earth. All of it will depend on how well we manage our energy demands along with how well we can develop and use our renewable energy sources (Kolbert 349). Green energy can also be referred to as renewable energy, which requires less maintenance compared to non-renewable sources of energy (Ellis 66). Fuel for the renewable sources of energy comes from natural resources such as wind, reducing costs of production. This paper will highlight the major advantages of green energy. California was one of the first states to develop utility-scaled wind farms, and until 2000 had more wind farms than all countries combined. Furthermore, according to the U.S. Department of Energy, California’s wind power plants offset the emission of more that 2.5 billion pounds of carbon dioxide and 15 million pounds of other pollutants that would have been produced. Wind energy is most preferable because it has no waste products. Currently, California has more than 13,000 wind turbines generating electricity, of those 13,000 or 95 percent are located in three main areas: (1) Altamont Pass, (2) Tehachapi, and (3) San Gorgonio. According to U.S. Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar, â€Å"Wind power is a key(s) to America’s clean energy future† (AWEA 2011). In addition, A. Solway from Renewable Resources stated that, â€Å"renewable energy is pro-environment being ranked as the cleanest source of green energy and does not in any ... ...nd. However, setting up the offshore turbines has been quite challenging, as relocation of people has been a hot topic that has propped up many challenges (Twidell and Wier 76). Aside from all the positive aspects of wind turbines one of the largest arguments against turbines is the large number of bird and bat fatalities that are attributed to windmills during their migration. The birds and bats are dieing due by flying into the blades on the windmills. Taking this into account some of the measures, the green power industry has taken to try an avoid any further impact on the wildlife. One of the steps is replacing old turbines with new ones, which produce more energy. According to the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, that by comparison to communication towers, oil spills, feral cats that a very small fraction of birds is actually killed by wind related causes.

Positive Effects of Social Networking

AbstractionSocial networking has changed the manner people interact with each other everlastingly. Social networking foremost existed as an innovation created in 1975 known as electronic mail, which is still used today ( Email ) . However societal networking has advanced in to utilizing a profile to give information about a user and his or her involvements, and has integrated the usage of electronic mail. Now societal networking involves sharing narratives, exposures, and involves the usage of apps every bit good as messaging to pass on with others. This type of societal networking did non go popular until the twelvemonth 2003 when MySpace and Friendster were launched. Shortly after Facebook was launched but was non unfastened to the general populace until 2006, which has become the figure one societal networking site today. These webs have many positive effects such as staying in contact with friends, run intoing new people, supplying educational benefits, every bit good as the conv enience of mobilly accessing it. Besides there are some negative effects which include individuality larceny, cyber intimidation, decreased societal interaction in existent life, and societal isolation. Increase in nomadic societal networking could possible do future wellness jobs. The first type of societal networking created was Email, which was invented in 1975 ( Email ) . Since so societal networking has advanced into a profile with legion characteristics that can be used and has integrated the usage of electronic mail. Now societal networking is altering the manner the universe interacts with people, and has provided many utile tools for the universe to utilize. Still these societal webs are go oning to progress to supply better characteristics for users, and these popular sites will go on to turn in size. Even though societal webs can hold negative effects such as blowing clip, it besides affects people positively by leting people to pass on and stay in contact with friends in a much easier manner. In the article â€Å" Are societal networking sites good for our society? † ( 2009 ) societal networking is defined as â€Å" an online community that allow people to develop profiles of their backgrounds and involvements, communicate with friends and aliens, and portion ideas, exposures, Internet links, music, and more ( p.1 ) . Once a societal web is joined users are prompted to place others in the system with which they have a relationship known by and large as â€Å" friends. † Social networking sites vary greatly with the characteristics they have to offer, and is what makes each site different from the other. Six Degrees was the first major societal web, similar to societal networking today, to be launched and was launched in 1997 ( Bhutkar, 2009 ) . Social networking as it is today did non go popular until 2003 when Friendster MySpace and LinkedIn were launched. Then in 2004 Facebook was launched but was merely unfastened to college pupils with a valid universit y electronic mail. Facebook remained a college merely web for two old ages before it opened to the general populace in 2006. Since so Facebook has become the figure one societal networking site ( Bhutkar, 2009 ) . Social networking sites allow people to pass on and stay in contact with friends every bit good as fitting new people. These sites allow people to happen others with similar involvements that they can make a relationship with and acquire to cognize one another. Groups can be joined or formed to run into people with similar involvements, and positions. Social networking allows for originative look by utilizing tools such as blogging and messaging to post thoughts and narratives ( Are societal networking sites good for our society, 2009 ) . Users besides portion poems, involvement in music, Television shows, avocations, exposures, and many other things ( Jasson ) . Event invitations can be made and sent to friends instead than holding to get off invitations and friends can besides rsvp for an event on the site. Not merely is it used to speak to friends, but it is besides used to discourse educational subjects. Social networking is said to increase a individual ‘s quality of life, and can cut down wellness hazards. Many people report that they have non had any negative experiences with societal networking, and schools are get downing to look at it as an educational tool ( Thelwell, 2006 ) . The usage of societal networking helps better technological accomplishments of pupils, and exposes them to many diverse positions about things. It besides has helped with communicating accomplishments, and allows the acquisition of civilizations from users all over the universe. Besides pupils use societal networking to discourse prep subjects with equals online, and to acquire aid on assignments ( Reid, 2009 ) . Sixty per centum of pupils on societal webs have said that they talk about instruction, and 50 per centum specifically speak about school work assignments. These pupils seem to hold an extr aordinary set of traditional and twenty-first century accomplishments including communicating, creativeness, coaction, and leading accomplishments and engineering proficiency. Parents are anticipating schools to take advantage of utilizing on-line societal networking to educate kids, but to make so in a safe manner. Some public schools have created a secure societal web for its pupil to be able to pass on with other pupils, and to make so in a more safe manner ( National School Board Association, 2007 ) . Social Networking does non merely profit persons, but it besides benefits concerns every bit good. These sites allow concerns to publicize and market services to a big audience, and a profile is free to put up ( Gillin ) . Numerous concerns have created profiles that provide elaborate information about the concern to publicize in a low cost manner ( Roberts, 2008 ) . Businesss will derive more attending on societal webs because the concern profile is available to for all users of the societal web to see. Besides concerns like to utilize societal webs to larn what possible employees are like, and do determinations based on the information provided on the individual ‘s profile ( Ellison, Steinfield, & A ; Lampe, 2007 ) . Social networking has already wholly changed the manner people interact in the universe, but besides it is progressing more to do it easier to entree. Now societal networking is going nomadic and can be accessed through the usage of a cell phone. It is thought to be a great thought and would increase the usage of societal networking since a batch of people carry cell phones with them at all times. Peoples can utilize nomadic phones to update their position, station remarks, upload exposure, send messages, and update profile from merely about anyplace ( Kharif, 2006 ) . This allows people to be able to acquire things done every bit good as take some clip to log onto societal webs. Making societal webs accessible through cell phones is besides expected to increase the figure of users by a important sum ( Gillin ) . So far nomadic societal networking is being used more than societal networking from personal computer computing machines. The top sites that are being visited utilizing noma dic phones are Facebook, MySpace, and Bebo. Bing able to entree societal webs from the cell phone unlocks the full potency of societal web, and makes it more convenient for people to utilize. Since it is more convenient to utilize the figure of users has increased and the nomadic societal networking has increased significantly ( Hamblen, 2008 ) . Social networking does hold negative effects every bit good, but are nil compared to the advantages of utilizing it. These sites cut down the sum of face to confront socialising and replace it with on-line interaction which is believed to ensue in low quality relationships with other people ( Mikami, Szwedo, Allen, Evans, & A ; Hare, 2010 ) . Teens over portion information to the populace that can ache them in the hereafter when seeking to acquire a occupation, and canceling the information is non good plenty. Cyber strong-arming occurs every bit good, which is strong-arming people online in a public manner, but occurs at a little per centum. Peoples that often use on-line societal networking are besides prone to societal isolation which can take to depression and decreased societal accomplishments ( Mikami, Szwedo, Allen, Evans, & A ; Hare, 2010 ) . A false sense of security leaves societal networking site users vulnerable to security onslaughts such as hacking, leaking sensitive in formation, and directing viruses. Identity larceny can happen when a cybercriminal uses the web to garner personal information posted about people ( University of the Pacific ) . It besides has been said that societal networking sites endanger kids by leting paedophiles to seek out kids ( Are societal networking sites good for our society? ) . Besides since they are going mobile it might promote people to utilize cell phone to entree these sites while driving merely like text messaging was a popular thing to make while driving. Social networking going nomadic usage will increase cell phone usage and the job with that is that cell phones have been found to breathe electromagnetic radiation that is absorbed by the encephalon and organic structure. This soaking up disrupts the encephalon sites for memory and acquisition and can do confusion and forgetfulness ( Thomas, 2004 ) . It is besides been reported that cell phones can do malignant neoplastic disease from the electromagnetic exposure to other parts of the organic structure, but small accent has been placed on it. The cause of malignant neoplastic disease in the encephalon has been the chief wellness concern with cell phones, which societal networking by nomadic phone is non exposing the encephalon to the moving ridges. Besides, cell phones give little sums of radiation off and would necessitate a batch of usage and over a long period of clip for it to get down to do malignant neoplastic disease. Research is needed to supply grounds to find that existent wellness hazard of cell phones. Social networking has its advantages and its disadvantages like everything else does. The sites are continuously progressing, and altering to repair the negative jobs. One illustration would be accessing societal networking sites utilizing cell phones so that people can entree the site on the spell instead than sit at place on a computing machine. Most users have stated that they have had merely positive experiences with societal networking, and really few people experience cyber intimidation. There are still jobs that need to be fixed, but it seems that the positive effects outweigh the negative effects. Social networking is a really valuable tool that can be used to run into new people, and allow people to stay in contact with friends. Even though it can blow clip, societal networking positively affects the universe by leting people to pass on, and remain in contact with friends in an easy and convenient manner.MentionsAre societal networking sites good for our society? ( 2009 ) . Social Networking ProCon.org. Retrieved April 9, 2010, from hypertext transfer protocol: //socialnetworking.procon.orgBhutkar, G. ( 2009, January 29 ) . Users on Social Networking Sites. Journal of HC Vistas, 5 ( February 2009 ) . Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.hceye.org/ ? UsabilityInsights/ ? ? p=103Ellison, N. B. , Steinfield, C. , & A ; Lampe, C. ( 2007 ) . The benefits of Facebook â€Å" friends: † societal capital and college pupils ‘ usage of on-line societal web sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12 ( 4 ) . Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //jcmc.indiana.edu/ ? vol12/ ? issue4/ ? ellison.htmlElectronic mail: The First -and Largest- Social Network Web Strategy by Jeremiah Owyang | Social Media, Web Marketing. ( n.d. ) . Web Strategy by Jeremiah Owyang: Web Marketing, Social Media. Retrieved April 11, 2010, from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.web-strategist.com/blog/2009/07/09/email-the-first-social-network/Gillin, P. ( 2008 ) . Business anyplace, anytime. Computerworld Communications Brief, 1-5. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.slideshare.net/ ? PingElizabeth/ ? the-promise-of-mobile-unified-communicationsHamblen, M. ( 2008, September 11 ) . Get Ready for nomadic societal webs. Computerworld. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.computerworld.com/ ? s/ ? article/ ? 9114487/ ? Get_ready_for_mobile_social_networks_ ? taxonomyId=165Jansson, Y. ( n.d. ) . Online societal networking positive facets. In article splashboard. Retrieved March 29, 2010, from articledashboard database. ( 477721 )Kharif, O. ( 2006, May 31 ) . Social Networking Goes Mobile. BusinessWeek. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.businessweek.com/ ? technology/ ? content/ ? may2006/ ? tc20060530_170086.htmMikami, A. Y. , Szwedo, D. E. , Allen, J. P. , Evans, M. A. , & A ; Hare, A. L. ( 2010 ) . Adolescent Peer Relationships and Behavior Problems Predict immature grownups ‘ commu nicating on societal networking web sites. Developmental Psychology, 46 ( 1 ) , 46-56.National School Boards Association. ( 2007 ) . Making & A ; Connecting: Research and Guidelines on Online Social and educational networking [ Data file ] . Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //socialnetworking.procon.org/ ? sourcefiles/ ? CreateandConnect.pdfReid, K. ( 2009, November ) . The rise of societal networking sites. Education Journal, 119, 22. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //search.ebscohost.com/ ? login.aspx? direct=true & A ; db=aph & A ; AN=47781789 & A ; loginpage=Login.asp & A ; site=ehost-liveThelwall, M. ( 2008, January 25 ) . Myspace, Facebook, Bebo: Social Networking Students. ALT Newsletter, January 2008 ( 11 ) . Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //newsweaver.co.uk/ ? alt/ ? e_article000993849.cfm? x=b11,0, wThomas, W. ( 2004 ) . Cell phone wellness effects: busy signals think twice before you place that call.Alive. Retrieved from hypertext trans fer protocol: //willthomas.net/ Investigations/Articles/cellphones.htmUniversity of the Pacific – Online Social Networking Dangers and Benefits. ( n.d. ) . University of the Pacific – Stockton, San Francisco, Sacramento. Retrieved April 11, 2010, from hypertext transfer protocol: //web.pacific.edu/x4989.xml? ss=print